Indoor wireless communications from theory to implementation

Indoor Wireless Communications: From Theory to Implementation provides an in-depth reference for design engineers, system planners and post graduate students interested in the vastly popular field of indoor wireless communications. It contains wireless applications and services for in-building scena...

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Detalles Bibliográficos
Otros Autores: Aragâon-Zavala, Alejandro, author (author)
Formato: Libro electrónico
Idioma:Inglés
Publicado: Hoboken, New Jersey : John Wiley & Sons, Ltd [2017]
Edición:First edition
Materias:
Ver en Biblioteca Universitat Ramon Llull:https://discovery.url.edu/permalink/34CSUC_URL/1im36ta/alma991009849099706719
Tabla de Contenidos:
  • -- Preface xix
  • 1 Introduction 1
  • 1.1 Motivation 1
  • 1.2 Evolution of Macro to Heterogeneous Networks 2
  • 1.3 Challenges 3
  • 1.4 Structure of the Book 4
  • References 5
  • 2 Indoor Wireless Technologies 7
  • 2.1 Cellular 7
  • 2.1.1 The Cellular Concept 8
  • 2.1.2 GSM 9
  • 2.1.3 UMTS 11
  • 2.1.4 HSPA 12
  • 2.1.5 LTE 13
  • 2.2 Wi-Fi 14
  • 2.2.1 History 14
  • 2.2.2 Medium Access Control (MAC) Sublayer 16
  • 2.2.3 Physical Layer 17
  • 2.2.4 Industry Bodies 17
  • 2.2.4.1 Wi-Fi Alliance 17
  • 2.2.4.2 IEEE 802.11 17
  • 2.2.4.3 The Wireless Broadband Alliance 17
  • 2.2.5 Wi-Fi Standards 18
  • 2.2.5.1 IEEE 802.11-1997 18
  • 2.2.5.2 IEEE 802.11a 18
  • 2.2.5.3 IEEE 802.11b 18
  • 2.2.5.4 IEEE 802.11g 18
  • 2.2.5.5 IEEE 802.11-2007 18
  • 2.2.5.6 IEEE 802.11n 18
  • 2.2.6 Spectrum 19
  • 2.2.6.1 2.4 GHz Band 19
  • 2.2.6.2 5 GHz Band 20
  • 2.2.7 Modulation Schemes Used in Wi-Fi 21
  • 2.2.8 Multiple Access (MA) Techniques 21
  • 2.2.8.1 Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) 21
  • 2.2.8.2 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) 22
  • 2.2.8.3 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) 23
  • 2.2.9 Power Levels 24
  • 2.2.10 Performance Indicators 25
  • 2.2.11 Target Signal Levels and Link Budgets 25
  • 2.2.12 Interference Challenges 29
  • 2.2.13 Channel Planning 29
  • 2.2.13.1 Single-Floor and Vertical Channel Planning 30
  • 2.2.13.2 Multichannel Access Points 31
  • 2.2.13.3 Automated Planning 31
  • 2.2.14 Mobility Issues 31
  • 2.2.14.1 Layer 2 Roam 32
  • 2.2.14.2 Layer 3 Roam 32
  • 2.3 Bluetooth 33
  • 2.4 ZigBee 36
  • 2.5 Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) 37
  • 2.6 Private Mobile Radio (PMR) 39
  • 2.6.1 PMR Elements 40
  • 2.6.2 Attributes 40
  • 2.6.3 TETRA 41
  • 2.7 Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT) 42
  • References 44
  • 3 System Requirements 45
  • 3.1 Environments 45
  • 3.1.1 Corporate Buildings 46
  • 3.1.2 Airports 47
  • 3.1.3 Trains and Railway Stations 50
  • 3.1.4 Shopping Centres 52
  • 3.1.5 Hospitals 53
  • 3.1.6 Arenas and Stadiums 54
  • 3.1.6.1 What Makes a Stadium so Special? 56.
  • 3.1.6.2 Mix of Communities with Different Needs 56
  • 3.1.7 University Campuses 57
  • 3.1.8 Underground Stations 59
  • 3.1.9 Cinemas and Theatres 60
  • 3.1.10 Hotels 60
  • 3.1.11 Cruise Ships 62
  • 3.2 Coverage 62
  • 3.2.1 Cellular 62
  • 3.2.2 Wi-Fi 64
  • 3.2.3 Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPAN) 65
  • 3.3 Isolation 66
  • 3.4 Leakage 67
  • 3.5 Capacity 67
  • 3.6 Interference 70
  • 3.7 Signal Quality 71
  • 3.8 Technology 72
  • 3.9 Cost 72
  • 3.10 Upgradeability 73
  • 3.11 System Expansion 74
  • 3.12 Conclusion 74
  • References 74
  • 4 Radio Propagation 77
  • 4.1 Maxwell's Equations 77
  • 4.1.1 Gauss's Law for Electricity 79
  • 4.1.2 Gauss's Law for Magnetism 79
  • 4.1.3 Faraday's Law of Induction 81
  • 4.1.4 Ampère's Circuital Law 81
  • 4.1.5 Consequence of Maxwell's Equations 82
  • 4.2 Plane Waves 82
  • 4.2.1 Wave Equation 83
  • 4.2.2 Plane Wave Properties 84
  • 4.2.3 Wave Polarization 85
  • 4.2.4 Wave Propagation in Lossy Media 87
  • 4.3 Propagation Mechanisms 87
  • 4.3.1 Is Electromagnetic Theory Wrong Inside Buildings? 87
  • 4.3.2 Loss and Skin Effect 88
  • 4.3.3 Reflection 89
  • 4.3.4 Refraction (Transmission) 90
  • 4.3.5 Diffraction 91
  • 4.3.6 Scattering 92
  • 4.3.7 Waveguiding 94
  • 4.4 Effects of Materials 95
  • 4.5 Path Loss 97
  • 4.5.1 Median Path Loss 97
  • 4.5.2 Link Budgets 98
  • 4.5.3 Receiver Sensitivity 99
  • 4.5.4 Maximum Acceptable Path Loss (MAPL) 99
  • 4.5.5 Free-Space Loss 100
  • 4.5.6 Excess Loss 100
  • 4.6 Fast Fading 101
  • 4.7 Shadowing (Slow Fading) 103
  • 4.8 Building Penetration Loss 104
  • 4.8.1 Radio Wave Propagation into Buildings 106
  • 4.8.2 Variations with Frequency 106
  • 4.8.3 Variations with Depth and Clutter 109
  • 4.8.4 Comparison of Assumptions Made by Ofcom 109
  • 4.9 Conclusion 109
  • References 110
  • 5 Channel Modelling 113
  • 5.1 The Importance of Channel Modelling 113
  • 5.2 Propagation Modelling Challenges 114
  • 5.3 Model Classification 114
  • 5.3.1 Channel Bandwidth 114
  • 5.3.2 Propagation Environment 115
  • 5.3.3 Model Construction Approach 115.
  • 5.4 Model Accuracy 116
  • 5.5 Empirical Models 117
  • 5.5.1 Power Law Model 118
  • 5.5.2 Keenan / Motley Model 119
  • 5.5.3 ITU-R Indoor Model 121
  • 5.5.4 Siwiak / Bertoni / Yano (SBY) Multipath-Based Model 122
  • 5.5.5 Ericsson Multiple Breakpoint Model 122
  • 5.5.6 Tuan Empirical Indoor Model: 900 MHz to 5.7 GHz 123
  • 5.5.7 Attenuation Factor Model 123
  • 5.5.8 Indoor Dominant Path Model (DPM) 124
  • 5.5.9 COST-231 Multiwall Model 126
  • 5.6 Physical Models 128
  • 5.6.1 Introduction to Ray Tracing 129
  • 5.6.2 Honcharenko / Bertoni Model 130
  • 5.6.3 Ray-Tracing Site-Specific Model 131
  • 5.6.4 Lee Ray-Tracing Model 132
  • 5.6.5 Multichannel Coupling (MCC) Prediction 133
  • 5.6.6 Angular Z-Buffer Algorithm for Efficient Ray Tracing 136
  • 5.6.7 Intelligent Ray-Tracing (IRT) Model 138
  • 5.6.8 Hybrid Parabolic Equation / Integral Equation Indoor Model 139
  • 5.7 Hybrid Models 140
  • 5.7.1 Reduced-Complexity UTD Model 140
  • 5.7.2 Measurement-Based Prediction 142
  • 5.8 Outdoor-to-Indoor Models 143
  • 5.8.1 COST-231 Line-of-Sight Model 144
  • 5.8.2 COST-231 Non-Line-of-Sight Model 146
  • 5.8.3 Broadband Wireless Access (BWA) Penetration Model 147
  • 5.8.4 Ichitsubo / Okamoto Outdoor-to-Indoor Model (800 MHz / 8 GHz) 148
  • 5.8.5 Taga / Miura Model Using Identification of Path Passing Through Wall Openings 149
  • 5.9 Models for Propagation in Radiating Cables 150
  • 5.9.1 Zhang Model 150
  • 5.9.2 Carter Model 151
  • 5.9.3 Seseña / Aragón / Castañón Model 152
  • 5.10 Wideband Channel Characteristics 153
  • 5.11 Noise Considerations 156
  • 5.11.1 Noise Sources 157
  • 5.11.2 Noise Parameters 157
  • 5.11.3 Considerations for Indoor Wireless Systems 158
  • 5.12 In-Building Planning Tools 159
  • 5.12.1 iBwave Design 159
  • 5.12.2 WiMap-4G 160
  • 5.12.3 Mentum CellPanner 160
  • 5.12.4 Atrium 160
  • 5.12.5 WinProp 160
  • 5.12.6 CellTrace 161
  • 5.12.7 EDX Signal Pro 161
  • 5.12.8 iBuildNet DAS 162
  • 5.12.9 Wireless InSite 162
  • 5.13 Conclusion 162
  • References 163
  • 6 Antennas 167
  • 6.1 The Basics of Antenna Theory 167.
  • 6.1.1 Conditions for Radiation 168
  • 6.1.2 Antenna Regions 169
  • 6.2 Antenna Parameters 170
  • 6.2.1 Radiation Pattern 171
  • 6.2.2 Directivity 174
  • 6.2.3 Radiation Resistance and Efficiency 176
  • 6.2.4 Power Gain 177
  • 6.2.5 Bandwidth 178
  • 6.2.6 Reciprocity 179
  • 6.2.7 Receiving Antenna Aperture 180
  • 6.2.8 Beamwidth 181
  • 6.2.9 Cross-Polar Discrimination 181
  • 6.2.10 Polarization Matching 182
  • 6.3 Antenna Types 183
  • 6.3.1 Linear Wire 183
  • 6.3.2 Loop 184
  • 6.3.3 Antenna Arrays 186
  • 6.3.4 Travelling Wave and Broadband 186
  • 6.3.5 Microstrip 187
  • 6.3.6 Yagi-Uda 188
  • 6.3.7 Aperture Antennas 189
  • 6.3.8 Horn 189
  • 6.3.9 Monopole 190
  • 6.3.10 Parabolic Reflector (Dish) 190
  • 6.3.11 Smart Antennas 192
  • 6.4 Antenna Performance Issues 193
  • 6.4.1 Mean Effective Gain (MEG) 193
  • 6.4.2 Radiation Pattern Extrapolation 195
  • 6.4.3 Reliability of Radiation Patterns 198
  • 6.5 Antenna Measurements 199
  • 6.6 MIMO (Multiple-Input Multiple-Output) 200
  • 6.7 Examples Of In-Building Antennas 203
  • 6.7.1 In-Building Cellular Antenna Requirements 203
  • Contents xi
  • 6.7.2 Omnidirectional 203
  • 6.7.3 Directional 206
  • 6.7.4 Macrocell 207
  • 6.7.5 Multiband 207
  • 6.7.6 Deployment Considerations 208
  • 6.8 Radiating Cables 208
  • 6.8.1 Structure 209
  • 6.8.2 Applications 210
  • 6.8.3 Propagation Modes 210
  • 6.8.3.1 Coupled Mode 210
  • 6.8.3.2 Radiating Mode 211
  • 6.8.4 Parameters 211
  • 6.8.4.1 Coupling Loss 211
  • 6.8.4.2 Insertion Loss 211
  • 6.8.4.3 Bandwidth 211
  • 6.8.5 Practical Considerations 212
  • 6.9 Conclusion 212
  • References 212
  • 7 Radio Measurements 215
  • 7.1 The Value of Measurements 215
  • 7.1.1 Tuning Empirical Path Loss Models 216
  • 7.1.2 Creating Synthetic Channel Models 218
  • 7.1.3 Validating Indoor Radio Designs 218
  • 7.2 Methodology for Indoor Measurements 218
  • 7.2.1 Measurement Campaign Plan 218
  • 7.2.2 Preliminary Site Visit 219
  • 7.2.3 Site Acquisition and Permissions 219
  • 7.2.4 Equipment Checklist 219
  • 7.2.5 Measurement Campaign 219.
  • 7.2.6 Data Postprocessing 219
  • 7.2.7 Postvisit to Site 219
  • 7.3 Types of Measurement Systems 220
  • 7.3.1 Narrowband Measurements 220
  • 7.3.1.1 CW Measurements 221
  • 7.3.1.2 Code Scanning 223
  • 7.3.1.3 Engineering Test Mobiles 224
  • 7.3.1.4 Comparative Analysis 224
  • 7.3.2 Wideband Measurements 226
  • 7.4 Measurement Equipment 228
  • 7.4.1 Transmit Equipment 228
  • 7.4.2 Receive Rquipment 229
  • 7.4.3 Miscellaneous Testing Components 230
  • 7.4.4 Buyer's Guide 232
  • 7.5 Types of Indoor Measurement Surveys 233
  • 7.5.1 Design Survey 233
  • 7.5.2 Existing Coverage 234
  • 7.6 Guidelines for Effective Radio Measurements 235
  • 7.6.1 Planning Your Measurements: The MCP 235
  • 7.6.1.1 Introduction 236
  • 7.6.1.2 Objectives 236
  • 7.6.1.3 Requirements 236
  • 7.6.1.4 Antenna Locations 237
  • 7.6.1.5 Walk Test Routes 238
  • 7.6.1.6 Workplan 238
  • 7.6.1.7 Implications of Not Having an MCP 238
  • 7.6.2 Choose a Suitable Navigation System 238
  • 7.6.3 Signal Sampling and Averaging Considerations 241
  • 7.6.4 Documentation 245
  • 7.6.5 Walk Test Best Practice 246
  • 7.6.6 Equipment Calibration and Validation 247
  • 7.7 Model Tuning and Validation 250
  • 7.7.1 Measurements for Model Tuning 251
  • 7.7.2 Factors Affecting Model Tuning 252
  • 7.7.3 Impact of Having Insufficient Measurements for Tuning 252
  • 7.8 Conclusion 254
  • References 255
  • 8 Capacity Planning and Dimensioning 257
  • 8.1 Introduction 257
  • 8.2 An Overview On Teletraffic 258
  • 8.2.1 Trunking 259
  • 8.2.2 Loss and Queue Networks 260
  • 8.2.3 Busy-Hour 260
  • 8.3 Capacity Parameters / Circuit-Switched 260
  • 8.3.1 Blocking 260
  • 8.3.2 Grade of Service 261
  • 8.3.3 Traffic per User 261
  • 8.3.4 Offered and Carried Traffic 262
  • 8.3.5 Traffic Categories 263
  • 8.4 Data Transmission Parameters 264
  • 8.4.1 Delay 264
  • 8.4.2 Throughput 264
  • 8.4.3 Latency 264
  • 8.5 Capacity Limits 265
  • 8.6 Radio Resource Management 265
  • 8.7 Load Sharing: Base Station Hotels 266
  • 8.8 Traffic Mapping 267
  • 8.9 Capacity Calculations 267.
  • 8.9.1 Service Categories 268
  • 8.9.1.1 Service Types 268
  • 8.9.1.2 Traffic Classes 268
  • 8.9.1.3 Service Category Parameters 269
  • 8.9.2 Service Environment 270
  • 8.9.3 Radio Environment 271
  • 8.9.4 Radio Access Technology Groups (RATGs) 272
  • 8.9.5 Methodology Flowchart 272
  • 8.9.6 Market Data Analysis 273
  • 8.9.7 Traffic Demand Calculation by SE and SC 274
  • 8.9.8 Traffic Distribution Amongst RATGs 275
  • 8.9.8.1 Distribution Ratios 276
  • 8.9.8.2 Distribution of Session Arrival Rates 278
  • 8.9.8.3 Offered Traffic 279
  • 8.9.9 Carried Traffic Capacity Determination 279
  • 8.9.9.1 Circuit-Switched Traffic 279
  • 8.9.9.2 Packet-Switched Traffic 280
  • 8.10 Wi-Fi Capacity 280
  • 8.10.1 The Challenge 280
  • 8.10.2 Facts and Figures 280
  • 8.10.3 Coverage Design 282
  • 8.10.4 Capacity Design 283
  • 8.10.5 Additional Challenges 283
  • 8.11 Data Offloading Considerations 284
  • 8.11.1 Data Offload Using Femtocells 287
  • 8.11.2 Data Offload Using Wi-Fi 287
  • 8.11.3 Femtocell versus Wi-Fi 287
  • 8.11.3.1 Wi-Fi 287
  • 8.11.3.2 Femtocells 288
  • 8.11.4 Carrier Wi-Fi 288
  • 8.11.5 UMA/GAN 288
  • 8.11.6 Seamless Authentication 289
  • 8.11.7 Turning Wi-Fi into an Operator Network 289
  • 8.11.7.1 WBA Next Generation Hotspot 290
  • 8.11.7.2 WBA Roaming 290
  • 8.11.7.3 WFA Hotspot 290
  • 8.11.7.4 ANDSF 290
  • 8.11.7.5 I-WLAN 290
  • 8.11.8 Discussion 290
  • 8.12 Conclusion 291
  • References 292
  • 9 RF Equipment and Distribution Systems 293
  • 9.1 Base Stations 293
  • 9.2 Distributed Antenna Systems 295
  • 9.2.1 Passive DAS 296
  • 9.2.2 Active DAS 297
  • 9.2.3 Hybrid DAS 299
  • 9.2.4 Installation 300
  • 9.3 RF Miscellaneous / Passive 300
  • 9.3.1 Cables 301
  • 9.3.2 Splitters/Combiners 302
  • 9.3.3 Antennas 302
  • 9.3.4 Directional Couplers 303
  • 9.3.5 Tappers 304
  • 9.3.6 Attenuators 305
  • 9.3.7 Circulators 306
  • 9.3.8 Terminations/Dummy Loads 307
  • 9.3.9 Duplexers 308
  • 9.3.10 Diplexers/Triplexers 308
  • 9.4 RF Miscellaneous / Active 308
  • 9.4.1 Amplifiers 308.
  • 9.4.2 Active DAS Components 309
  • 9.4.2.1 Main Unit 309
  • 9.4.2.2 Expansion Unit 309
  • 9.4.2.3 Remote Unit 309
  • 9.5 Repeaters 310
  • 9.5.1 Repeater Deployments 310
  • 9.5.1.1 Operator-Deployed Repeaters 310
  • 9.5.1.2 Traditional Consumer Repeaters 311
  • 9.5.1.3 Intelligent Repeaters 312
  • 9.5.2 Disadvantages 312
  • 9.5.3 Installation Issues 312
  • 9.5.4 Benefits 314
  • 9.6 Conclusion 314
  • References 314
  • 10 Small Cells 315 /Simon R. Saunders
  • 10.1 What is a Small Cell? 315
  • 10.2 Small Cell Species 316
  • 10.2.1 Femtocells for Residential Environments 316
  • 10.2.2 Picocells 316
  • 10.2.3 Metrocells 317
  • 10.2.4 Rural and Remote Small Cells 317
  • 10.3 The Case for Small Cells 318
  • 10.3.1 Capacity 318
  • 10.3.2 Coverage 318
  • 10.3.3 User Experience 318
  • 10.3.4 Cost Effectiveness 318
  • 10.4 History and Standards 318
  • 10.5 Architecture and Management 320
  • 10.6 Coverage, Capacity and Interference 321
  • 10.7 Business Case 323
  • 10.8 Regulation 324
  • 10.9 Small Cells ComparedWith Other IndoorWireless Technologies 324
  • 10.9.1 Distributed Antenna Systems (DASs) 324
  • 10.9.2 Wi-Fi 325
  • 10.9.3 Repeaters and Relay Nodes 326
  • 10.10 Market 326
  • 10.11 Future: New Architectures and Towards 5G 327
  • References 327
  • 11 In-Building Case Studies 331 /Vladan Jevremovic
  • 11.1 Public Venue 331
  • 11.1.1 Scenario 332
  • 11.1.2 Solution 332
  • 11.1.3 Common Design Requirements 332
  • 11.1.3.1 Multicarrier (Neutral Host) 332
  • 11.1.3.2 Multiband 333
  • 11.1.3.3 Multitechnology 334
  • 11.1.4 Common Best Practices 335
  • 11.1.4.1 Passive Intermodulation (PIM) 335
  • 11.1.4.2 Downlink Design 335
  • 11.1.4.3 Uplink Design 336
  • 11.1.5 Summary 341
  • 11.2 Stadium 341
  • 11.2.1 Scenario 342
  • 11.2.2 Solution 344
  • 11.2.3 Design Requirements 344
  • 11.2.3.1 RF Coverage 344
  • 11.2.3.2 Capacity 344
  • 11.2.3.3 Handoff Management 344
  • 11.2.3.4 Interference Management 345
  • 11.2.4 Site Survey 345
  • 11.2.5 Detailed 3-D Modelling 346
  • 11.2.6 Sectorization 348.
  • 11.2.7 Macro Coverage Management 349
  • 11.2.8 Passive Intermodulation Management 350
  • 11.2.9 Design for Stadium Capacity 350
  • 11.2.9.1 Data Capacity Sizing 352
  • 11.2.9.2 Voice Capacity Sizing 358
  • 11.2.10 RF Coverage Design 360
  • 11.2.11 Summary 361
  • 11.3 Shopping Centre 362
  • 11.3.1 Scenario 362
  • 11.3.2 Design Requirements 363
  • 11.3.2.1 RF Coverage 363
  • 11.3.2.2 Antenna Placement Restrictions 364
  • 11.3.3 Solution 364
  • 11.3.4 Antenna Choice and Placement 364
  • 11.3.5 RF Coverage Design 365
  • 11.3.6 Capacity Dimensioning 367
  • 11.3.7 Sectorization 372
  • 11.3.8 Data Rate Coverage 372
  • 11.3.9 Summary 373
  • 11.4 Business Campus 374
  • 11.4.1 Scenario 374
  • 11.4.2 Design Requirements 375
  • 11.4.2.1 RF Coverage 375
  • 11.4.2.2 Handoff Management 376
  • 11.4.2.3 Interference Management 377
  • 11.4.3 Solution 378
  • 11.4.4 Interference Control 378
  • 11.4.5 Lift Coverage 380
  • 11.4.6 Detailed RF Coverage Design 383
  • 11.4.7 Summary 385
  • 11.5 Underground (Subway) 386
  • 11.5.1 Scenario 386
  • 11.5.2 Design Requirements 387
  • 11.5.2.1 RF Coverage 387
  • 11.5.2.2 Capacity 389
  • 11.5.2.3 Handoff Management 390
  • 11.5.3 Solution 390
  • 11.5.4 RF Coverage Design 391
  • 11.5.5 Capacity 393
  • 11.5.5.1 Data 393
  • 11.5.5.2 Voice 400
  • 11.5.6 Environmental Challenges 402
  • 11.5.7 Radio Coverage Maps 403
  • 11.5.8 Summary 406
  • References 406
  • Index 409.