CO2 emissions Energy management and control Li-ion Technology: general issues V2G VIPV artificial physics optimization (APO) battery charger battery degradation cost–benefit analysis demand forecasting electric bike electric vehicle electric vehicle charging and discharging control electric vehicles energy management system hybrid AC/DC microgrid life cycle assessment moving horizon window particle swarm optimization (PSO) peak shaving photovoltaic system photovoltaic systems plug-in electric vehicle power converter real-time renewable energy robust optimization smart charging vehicle to grid